Assess the Significance of Developments in Policing Essay Example for Free

Assess the Significance of Developments in Policing Essay There were many significant developments in policing which aided the effectiveness of law enforcement in Britain from the period of 1830 to 1965. Reasons as to why developments were necessary in this period; firstly between the years 1829 – 1850 there was a steady increase in crime[1]. Secondly as time progressed criminals came up with ways to beat the policing system, therefore it was necessary for policing in Britain to develop, in order to keep on top of crime. Development factors such as; the establishment of the Metropolitan Police Force, passing of key legislation were key developments in policing which influenced law and order. Other developments such as the reformation of prisons and developments in technology, coupled with roles of individuals such as; Elizabeth Fry and high profile cases like that of Oscar Wilde, also contributed to the effectiveness of law enforcement in the 19th and 20th century. The first significant development in British policing, which notably advocated effective law enforcement was the establishment of the Metropolitan Police Force in 1830. This was a significantly fundamental advancement in law enforcement as it was the first time in British history that an organised policing force was introduced and it updated the predated system of watchmen and bow street runners. However, the force was met with varying attitudes from the public, much of which was sensationalised by the media[2]. Other major Acts were implemented to support the Metropolitan police, especially forces outside of London, for example; the Municipal Corporations Act 1835. This was a significant development as it nationalised the police force therefore allowing effective law enforcement to take place throughout the country, unlike before where it was restricted to London[3]. However the effectiveness of these developments can be questioned, as police officers were often criticised for being drunks and bullies[4], therefore they were mistrusted by the general public. There were further attempts to nationalise the police force, such as the Rural Constabulary Act 1839. This was a significant development in law  enforcement as the legislation focused nationalising policing in rural areas. On the other hand, the enforcement of the Act was optional[5] thus limiting its effectiveness, as many boroughs were apprehensive of its creation. Nevertheless further legislation was pioneered in the form of the County and Borough Police Act of 1856, which saw every county having to acquire a professional police force[6]. The government encouraged the development and gave incentives such as; paying for clothing and wage to efficient police forces[7]. Officers therefore, would have felt a sense of duty to their jobs accurately as they had respectable positions. Additional legislation allowed the policing forces of Britain to develop into further branches, such as the establishment of the C.I.D in 1877 which investigated homicides. This development was pivotal as it loosened pressure on the Metropolitan police force and allowed a select force to focus on a case. However, the birth of the C.I.D incurred with the Turf Fraud Scandal, thus leaving the public suspicious and distrustful of the establishment. The C.I.D’s first major test came in the form of the Jack the Ripper Case in 1888[8], which instilled fear throughout the nation. Conversely the case was significant in another light, as police performance was repeatedly criticised for its incapability and slow work. Other cases such as The Arrest of Scotland Yard[9], did not help the detective forces as they were again shown as an inefficient and corruptive detectives. The development of the C.I.D also brought about the development of the Special Irish Branch in 1884, both which showed their significance as they foiled the assassination attempt of Queen Victoria at her Golden Jubilee in 1887[10]. This was a significant case as it showed the public that both, the C.I.D and the Special Branch were effective developments of law and order as cooperative work between forces ensured the protection of the Queen and thus the nation. It is apparent that other factors contributed in influencing effective law and order and not only developments in policing, for instance the reformation of prisons. Prisons in the 18th century have been criticised for their poor sanitation, poor food and living conditions. It was remarked that felons in Britain lived â€Å"worse than dogs or swine†[11]. Humanitarian Elizabeth Fry campaigned for the separation of women and children from male  prisoners, especially after she witnessed the appalling conditions in prisons[12]. Her work was promoted throughout the House of Commons and with the support of Sir Robert Peel; they introduced a series of prison reform including the Gaols Act 1823. This showed the strong public opinion on issues regarding law and order, especially as intervention of influential individuals was evident. By 1840 the government had recognised that prisons needed to be modernised, such as the Pentonville prison in 1842. Developments such as these meant that wardens could control prisons better and new regimes could be exercised, such as the separate system, where inmates were kept in solitary confinement from the beginning of their sentence. This development aided effective law and order as there were reported cases of reformed criminals, however the system sent many insane or led them to suicide, questioning the regime and the governments handling on the treatment of criminals. Furthermore, prisons had been nationalised in 1877[13], this coupled with the harsh regimes led to a steady fall in crime[14], proving the effectiveness of this development on law and order. Further legislation such as the Prison Act 1898, reasserted the idea of reformation as the main role in prison regimes. This led to a dilution of the separate system, the abolition of hard labour, and established the idea t hat prison labour should be productive. The argument of the reformation of prisons brought attention to young offenders. Transportation itself had ended in 1852, as reformists viewed it as a lenient punishment, however under the Reformation School Acts (1854); courts were allowed to send children for transportation[15] setting double standards within society, whilst historians argue that there were little, if any boundaries between children and adults[16]. The Children’s Act of 1908, established juvenile courts[17] and also banned prison sentences to those less than 14 years of age. This was significant in influencing effective law enforcement, as children were seen with sympathy and compassion. The legislation also showed that boundaries were being set for adults and children. During this period there was a general feeling that children were committing crime due to inadequate discipline and education at home, thus the Borstal System was introduced[18]. The main elements in the borstal programs included; education, regular work, vocational training, and group  counselling, however the Borstal System proved to be ineffective as 75% of inmates still re-offended[19] . Further developments came into fruition in the form of technology, which greatly influenced effective law and order. It has been argued that were being increasingly caught[20], for instance, advancements through the development of finger printing in 1901[21]. The development aimed to prevent criminals from concealing previous convictions. This development contributed to effective law and order as a database of criminals was created which the police could use as a reference for repeat offenders. Other tools which helped the police force included Radio telegraphy and the use of the 999 system in 1910. These developments influenced effective law and order as the police was able to communicate better with not only one another, but also with those in need of help. However the effect of the modernisation of the police force meant that there was increasing reliance on electronical and technological methods, thus alienating the average police man from his community[22]. It can be argued that the use of media had also affected the influence the effectiveness of law and order as public opinion had been influenced through the use of various Medias. The Oscar Wilde Case of 1895[23], exemplified how societies stereotypical immoralities i.e. homosexuality, could be used against someone in a court of law and order and convict them as a criminal. Other cases, for instance the Derek Bentley Case of 1952[24], showed further miscarriage of justice, as the wrong person was hung. This case was significant in influencing law and order as the media attention helped increase societies widespread doubt in the justice system. An added incentive that motivated the public’s change of attitude towards capital punishment and the miscarriage of justice was the Ruth Ellis Case of 1955[25]. It was evident from this case, that Ellis was did not receive the correct legal representation in court and the case was not thoroughly investigated. It was found out after the trial; Ellis was a victim of domestic violence, which could have been the cause for her crime of passion. These high profile cases strengthened the public’s resolve on the issue of the barbarity of capital punishment and the ever present fact that there was  no reprieve for those who were convicted and hung. This led to the profoundly significant changes in legislation which influenced effective law and order; the Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act of 1965[26]. This was paramount in policing legislation as the death penalty was abolished. The abolition was a significant change in the 20th century as capital punishment was seen with much aversion both from the public and judges alike, who were especially reluctant to hand out death penalties. In conclusion developments within policing which significantly influenced effective law and order in the period 1830-1965 were vast and all had varying impact on society. Legislation such as the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835 and the Rural Constabulary Act of 1839, ensured society was protected by an organised, efficient national police force. However officers were distrusted by the general public, therefore they had many hurdles to face before having a significant impact on society. However one cannot base the effectiveness of law and order within this period solely on developments in policing, as there were other contributory factors. For example; reformation of prisons through work of individuals such as Elizabeth Fry, the establishment of the C.I.D, technological developments such as finger printing and DNA sampling and high profile cases like that of Oscar Wilde. These developments greatly advanced effective law and order, as one can base the suggestion of decreasing crime rate during 1830-1965[27] on these as well as the developments in policing. Bibliography Books Trend of Crime 1750 – 1900 – Ian Dawson Crime and Punishment: A Study Across Time – Roger Whiting 1968 D.Taylor. ‘Crime, Policing, Punishment in England 1750-1914’ The Victorian Underworld, Donald Thomas 1998 Police and Prisons – P. F. Speed 1970 Crime and Punishment through time, John Murray History of Police in England and Wales – T. Crithchley 1978 Websites www.historyhome.co.uk www.learnhistory.org.uk www.parliament.uk/ www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_and_Borough_Police_Act_1856 www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_the_Ripper#Investigation www.suite101.com/content/the-jubilee-plot-to-kill-queen-victoria-a290563 www.howardleague.org/index.php?id=elizabethfry www.howardleague.org/history-of-prison-system/ www.crimezzz.net/forensic_history/index.htm www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_wilde www.innocent.org.uk/cases/derekbentley/index.html www.stephwn-stratford.co.uk/ruth_ellis.htm www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1965/71/enacted

censorship :: essays research papers

Principles of Censorship in Singapore Administration of censorship in Singapore has been performed in a typically methodical manner with guidelines developed through experience.[8] First, materials going into the home are more heavily censored than those going into the corporate world. The Singapore authorities have drawn a distinction between information for business uses, which should be as free flowing as possible, and information for non-business uses. Information for the home is seen to be of a less critical nature so censorship of such information is regarded to have not as deleterious an effect. Second, materials for the young are more heavily censored than those for adults. This is an admittedly paternalistic principle of protecting the weaker members of society from the possible harm of the materials in question. Third, materials for public consumption are more heavily censored than those for private consumption. This is a corollary of the second principle as it is assumed that the public includes those who are "weaker." Also, regardless of the level of censorship those who are determined can always get their hands on them. Hence private consumption can only be policed to a limited extent. Further, it is more efficient to police public instead of private consumption. It should be noted that private consumption of censorship materials is still policed in that those found in private possession of censored materials can be convicted in court. Finally, materials deemed to have artistic and educational merit are less heavily censored. This is a recently articulated principle and has been applied to movies, which now have an R(A) or Restricted (Artistic) rating. In sum, censorship in Singapore has an element of differentiation: home vs. business, children vs. adults, public vs. private consumption. Further, materials that can be shown to have some tangible and wider benefit--such as for business, art and education--are censored with a much lighter hand. On the other hand, materials deemed to have less tangible benefit--such as "pure entertainment"-- are censored more heavily. To be sure, some of these principles come into conflict in the administration of censorship. The concession to artistic materials is an admission of one such conflict. On the Internet, however, the

Feminism in Doll’s House Essay

One of the primary tenets of Marxism is the belief that human thought is a product of the individual’s social and economic conditions, their relationships with others are often undermined by those conditions (Letterbie 1259), and that the weak or less-fortunate are always exploited by the richer bourgeoisie. A common theme found in Henrik Ibsen’s play, â€Å"A Dolls House,† is the exploitation of the weak and the poor by the strong and the rich, and an obsession with material possession. The characters in â€Å"A Dolls House† are all affected by the lack or acquisition of money, and their entire lives and way of thinking are based upon it. Therefore, a Marxist theme pervades throughout much of the play and can be seen from each of the main character’s perspectives. Nora’s way of thinking and her outlook on life are both completely dominated by her material wealth and financial conditions. For example, when the play begins Nora is just returning home from a shopping trip. She enters the apartment with an â€Å"armload of packages† (43) and is followed by a boy carrying a Christmas tree. Nora then tells Helene, one of their maids, to hide the tree so the kids won’t see it until it’s been decorated. When Torvald enters, she asks him for money so she can â€Å"hang the bills in gilt paper† as Christmas tree decorations (45). The tree symbolizes her obsession with money because she didn’t want anyone to see it until it had been decorated to show off their newfound wealth. Previously, she made the decorations by hand, spending an entire day on the project. Doing the same now would be â€Å"thinking poor† in her mind, so she spends excessive amounts of money on presents and decorates the tree with it because now they can afford to â€Å"let themselves go a bit† (44). Now that Nora belongs to a higher social class she practically throws money away. She tells the tree delivery boy to keep the change from the crown she gave him, paying him twice what he asks. Despite the fact that Torvald’s raise won’t come into effect for another three months, she insists that â€Å"we can borrow until then† (44) when previously she and Torvald saved every penny they could in order to get by, and they both worked odd jobs in order to supplement their income. She becomes more selfish as well, claiming that if something were to happen to Torvald after they had borrowed money, â€Å"it just wouldn’t matter† (44) because the people they borrowed from are strangers. Now that they belong to a higher social class, her responsibility has flown out the door and she cares only for her own interests. She doesn’t care what would happen to the â€Å"strangers† she borrowed from, because she concentrates only on what she can extract from other people. Also, when her friend Kristine comes over, the first thing she mentions is her husband’s new job, claiming that she feels â€Å"so light and happy† (49) because they now â€Å"have stacks of money and not a care in the world† (49). When the wiser Kristine answers that it would be nice â€Å"to have enough for the necessities† (50) Nora insists that that is not enough-she repeats that she wants â€Å"stacks and stacks of money† (50). After she tells Kristine she borrowed the money for the trip to Italy, and tells her about all the â€Å"hard work† she did in order to pay it off, she says her worries â€Å"don’t matter anymore because now I’m free! † (56). She equates freedom with the acquisition of wealth, saying that having money is the only way she can be â€Å"carefree and happy† (56). By the end of the play, however, she realizes that even if she is able to be free of her debts, she is still financially enslaved to her husband, because as a woman she is completely dependant on him. She refers to leaving him as â€Å"closing out their accounts,† (108) and in doing so â€Å"she renounces not only her marital vows but also her financial dependence because she has discovered that personal and human freedom are not measured in economic terms,† (Letterbie 1260). Nora’s entire outlook on life changes with a change in her economic conditions, thereby demonstrating the Marxist belief that people’s thoughts are a product of their financial situations. Torvald is much more careful with money, but he too bases his outlook on life and relationships solely on money and the status it earns him. When he hears Nora return from shopping, he asks if â€Å"his little spendthrift has been out throwing money around again,† (44) saying that they â€Å"really can’t go squandering† (44). Nora claims that since Torvald will be making â€Å"piles and piles of money† (44) from now on they can borrow until his raise comes through, but he is adamant in his reply that they should â€Å"never borrow† and have no debt because â€Å"something of freedom is lost from a home that’s founded on borrowing and debt† (44). Torvald, too, equates money with freedom, and refuses to give up that freedom by borrowing money. He too then mentions that it is â€Å"a wonderful feeling† (47) to know that â€Å"one’s got a safe secure job with a comfortable salary,† (47) similar to Nora’s claim that she’s now â€Å"carefree and happy† because of it. Torvald cares not only about money, but about his social status as well. When he finds out that Nora borrowed money from Krogstad with a forged signature, his â€Å"love† for her is completely erased, and he says she’s â€Å"ruined all his happiness† (106). He cares only about his reputation, because â€Å"it’s got to seem like everything is the same between us-to the outside world, at least† (106). All that matters to him is â€Å"saving the bits and pieces, the appearance† (106). However, once Krogstad gives them the note and says he won’t tell anyone about it, he is suddenly, magically able to love her again, because no one will know. He still cares only about himself, however, claiming â€Å"I’m saved, I’m saved! Oh, and you too† (107). Nora is only an afterthought when it comes to his reputation. Their relationship is ruined because he continues to believe in money and social status as the source of happiness, while Nora comes to realize that money is not that important. The Marxist theme can be seen in both Kristine and Krogstad as well. Kristine sacrificed her love for Krogstad and married another man because â€Å"his prospects seemed hopeless back then,† (95) and she had to be able to take care of her mother and brothers. Although their relationship was revived in the end, it almost failed â€Å"simply for money† (95). Once she comes back to Krogstad, she still won’t even give up the job she took from him, because she has to look out for herself-she tells Nora that in her position â€Å"you have to live, and so you grow selfish† (52). This is a Marxist attitude because her entire life and mind-set are a result of her economic situation at the time of her decisions. Krogstad committed a crime in order to support his family, and when his job was threatened he tried to save it by every means possible-even blackmail-saying he would fight for it â€Å"like life itself† (64) if need be. Krogstad tells Nora that â€Å"it was your husband who forced me to revert to my old ways,† (88) but from a deeper perspective it was really his financial situation that forced his hand and made him blackmail Nora, just as it was the reason he committed a crime years before. The Helmer’s maid, Anna-Marie, also has a Marxist perspective on life. She had to leave her home and her child in order to get by. When Nora asks how she was able to give her child up to the care of strangers she just replies that â€Å"a girl who’s poor and who’s gotten in trouble† (73) has no other choice, and that her daughter â€Å"has written to me both when she was confirmed and when she was married† (73). Anna-Marie’s entire life as well as her way of thinking has been determined by her financial situation. Her relationship with her daughter is â€Å"interrupted and practically destroyed† yet she â€Å"accepts her alienation from her child as if it were natural, given the circumstances of class and money† (Letturbie 1260). She can’t afford to be upset about leaving her only child, because she had no other choice. She had to give up a relationship with someone she loved, just as Kristine had to give up her love for Krogstad. Anna-Marie’s situation exemplifies that â€Å"in the marketplace [women] were a labor force expecting subsistence wages† (Letturbie 1260). Marxism includes the belief â€Å"that capitalism is based on the exploitation of workers by the owners of capital. † Anna-Marie may not have been exploited directly by the rich, but she is forced to live a substandard life because she is poor, and unlike Nora, she does not challenge the laws of class and society but accepts her situation. She does not realize that social class and society’s laws were created by other people â€Å"and thus are capable of imperfection and susceptible to change,† (Letturbie 1260). So all she can expect is to be poor her entire life, and for her financial conditions to remain stagnant. The problems that Nora, Anna-Marie and Kristine face are compounded by their gender. Ibsen’s play is considered by many to be a feminist work, illustrating the erroneous treatment of â€Å"the woman issue,† as Ibsen called it. Though he said in a speech once that Nora was supposed to represent the Everyman, and that he hadn’t been trying to address the issue of women’s rights, critics argue that the presence of feminism in the play is inherent and â€Å"justifiable whatever Ibsen’s intention and in spite of his speech,† (Templeton 111). Nora is depicted until the end of the play as a helpless, dimwitted fool who wastes her husband’s hard earned money. She is Torvald’s plaything, his burden and responsibility. Templeton describes their marriage as â€Å"a pan-cultural ideal†¦a relation of superior and inferior in which the wife is a creature of little intellectual and moral capacity, whose right and proper station is subordination to her husband† (Templeton 138). Her â€Å"womanly helplessness† was attractive to Torvald, because he had to be in control. When they get the Bond back from Krogstad and Torvald â€Å"forgives her,† he says that â€Å"to a man there is something sweet and satisfying in forgiving his wife,† because it seems as if his forgiveness â€Å"had made her doubly his own; he has given her a new life, and she has in a way become both wife and child to him† (65). She was an object, his property, to whom he deigned to give life; but only for his own pleasure. During the first act, he never calls her by name; he calls her his â€Å"squirrel,† a â€Å"spendthrift,† and a â€Å"featherbrain,† among other things. Her entire identity is determined by these nicknames; while she is â€Å"his squirrel† she is innocent, childish, obedient, and completely dependant on him. When he finally addresses her by name, in Act Three, her behavior is entirely different—she becomes serious, determined, and willful. She is his â€Å"doll-wife,† playing the game of marriage. She tells Torvald in the end, â€Å"You arranged everything according to your own taste, and so I got the same tastes as you, or pretended to† (67). All of it is a role that Nora has been taught to play by society, the behavior expected of all women of the time. This role was merely a mask, one that she couldn’t live with in the end. On the outside, she is entirely obedient to her husband; but on the inside, she yearns for recognition and a love that Torvald wasn’t willing to give. She was expected to be content with the life she had, though it wasn’t in any way fair or equal. When she expresses her hope that Torvald would have taken the blame for her crime upon himself, Torvald says that â€Å"no man would ever forsake his honor for the one he loves,† and Nora replies that â€Å"millions of women have done just that† (70). Her rebellion was so shocking to the audience that Ibsen â€Å"was accused of a kind of godless androgyny; women, in refusing to be compliant, were refusing to be women† (Templeton 114). Ibsen was even forced to change this ending in order for it to be performed. Obedience was the main trait that defined women; it was what separated them from men. When she decides to leave, Torvald claims that she is insane, because her â€Å"most sacred duties were to her husband and her children,† and â€Å"before all else she was a wife and mother† (68). So in leaving, she was in a sense denying the purpose of her existence. Women had no other role or function in society. Kristine broke free from this traditional role by chance, because her husband died. Had he lived, she would have been stuck in the same situation as Nora for the rest of her life. Even so, she is still dependant on men in order to live. When her father died, she was forced to marry a man she didn’t love in order to provide for her mother and younger brothers. She wasn’t able to get a job at that point, because she was young and unmarried; so the only option she had was marriage. After her husband died and she went to visit Nora, she says â€Å"I feel my life unspeakably empty. No one to live for anymore† (11). Her entire life up until that point revolved around men; the purpose of her existence was to please her husband and take care of her brothers. When that was no longer necessary, her life lost its meaning. She came to Nora because she was looking for work, and that could only be obtained through Torvald. When he gives her a job, he feels in control of her even outside the office. When Torvald and Nora return from the party in Act III and Kristine is there waiting, he says â€Å"you really ought to embroider, it’s much more becoming. Let me show you†¦in the case of knitting, that can never be anything but ungraceful† (57). He presumes to instruct her on something that is traditionally women’s work, and a hobby, as if she were doing it for him. He insults her taste and her work as if it is his right and his duty to correct not only his own wife but any woman that he sees doing something â€Å"wrong. † When Nora shut the door behind her, she wasn’t just a woman leaving her family. She was a woman seeking independence from the strictures of society and the rule of men which was placed upon her because of gender. She was the representation of Everyman, illustrating the need of everyone, no matter their background, for freedom. And she was the representation of the unnoticed, underappreciated workers of the world overthrowing the capitalists who took them for granted. Ibsen’s play was one of the greatest of its time, reaching all the way to our own with a relevance that will always be valid and true.

A Reflective Report Which Discusses Key Issues Related to...

A reflective report which discusses key issues related to the successful inclusion of all learners in mathematical activity and enquiry. Introduction. In this essay I plan to write a reflective and analytical report as to how all children, taking into account their individual needs, can be included successfully in engaging in mathematical activities and enquiries in the daily numeracy hour. I will focus on the issues of providing a curriculum which can be accessed by all learners, the importance of differentiating the content and delivery of mathematics lessons to suit children with different learning styles and abilities, the tensions between inclusive education and the ideals set out in the National Curriculum and National Numeracy†¦show more content†¦One such strategy that I have utilised in teaching the properties of two and three dimensional shapes to children, is to instruct them to make up a rhyme or a rap which contains all the facts which they need to remember. These were then recorded onto an audio tape, to refer back to if they were unable to recall the information. Visual learners will respond most effectively to learning through looking at visual stimulus such as pictures, charts, diagrams, moving images from television or animations and usually remember more of what has been seen, rather than what has been heard. Visual learners need to be given the opportunity to use resources such as picture games, number lines, cut out shapes and abacuses which promote the learning of mathematical concepts. They need to be given the opportunity to demonstrate their understanding using charts, graphs and pictures. Kinaesthetic learners can be defined as having a preference to engage with the experience physicallyÂ…modelling the point with hands and bodies and becoming animated as they do so. They learn through experience, movement, modelling and feel frustrated more readily with other forms of learning (Smith, A. 2001. p.173). A mathematics lesson which successfully includes kinaesthetic learners will involve activities such as children devising and playing boardShow MoreRelated THE IMPACT OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN IMPROVING STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES65118 Words   |  261 Pageshas provided the data that made this study possible. In addition, I wish to acknowledge my friend, Dr. Wong Lea Choung’s contribution in proofreading my thesis. This acknowledgement would be incomplete without mentioning my family, friends, peer learners, and colleagues for the interest shown in my pursuit of this degree, for the continuous support and encouragement. To each and every one of you, I must humbly say, â€Å"Thank you!† iii Dedication This thesis is dedicated to my wife, Irene, for the